Know Everything about Aircraft Turbulence and enjoy that next Flight to Your Favourite Destination

Have you been in an airplane before? Even on your first flight you must have had a bumpy ride at some point on that flight, similar to a automobile on a rough road. Were you afraid? This experience can be traumatizing and terrifying for some people and might develop into a phobia for flying. If you are affected by this kind of fear you would feel superior flying whether you knew all the plain truth about this phenomenon and that is what this article is about to present to you.
This situation being described is referred to as aircraft turbulence. It is created by irregular and random air motion, whether as a result of different masses of air moving at different speeds and colliding with apiece other, or of the same air masses behaving in an irregular fashion (turbulent flow) as a result of certain factors. Turbulence can shake any aircraft no matter how huge or the personality of the occupants – affecting the most powerful as much as the most lowly. It should be famous that aircraft turbulence occurs in cloudy region as much as it does in clear skies (atmosphere devoid of visible hydrometeors or water droplets). The latter case is often referred to as Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). 
It is important to know that there are several types (or degrees) of Aircraft Turbulence depending on how well developed the condition causing it is. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) classifies turbulence into the following:
Slight Turbulence – Experienced as light, erratic changes in the altitude and/or attitude of the aircraft. Loose objects sway from side to side and occupants feel a slight strain against their seat belts.
Moderate Turbulence – In this case loose objects might roll from one side to the other as both aircraft and occupants experience rapid jolts or bumps with greater strain against their seat belts.
Severe Turbulence – Here, loose objects are tossed from one corner to another; it becomes increasingly difficult to place food, particularly drinks into the mouth without spilling. There are abrupt changes in the altitude and attitude as air speed changes rapidly. The aircraft might go temporarily out of control as occupants are forced violently against their seat belts and travel along the aisle is virtually impossible. If inside a big cloud system, you might occasionally hear violent winds slap the body of the aircraft. This is the point where some people might start to pray for country while others call on their gods.
Extreme Turbulence – This might cause structural alteration to the aircraft as it is tossed about so violently that it becomes virtually impossible to control. Even though they sometimes occur, but by and massive they are very rare and pilots with basic knowledge of where they do will generally refrain them. The favourable weather conditions for this type of turbulence are generally found in mature thunderstorm clouds and particularly during take-off and landing. Fortunately Doppler Radars are being installed in major airports around the globe to detect the predisposing conditions and signal pilots accordingly. Some aircrafts are also equipped to detect them. Nothing can resist the awesome power of nature. Most times the Atmosphere’s reaction against man is a backlash of man’s action against it. When the region reacts violently, know how to defend your life by knowing why it acts the way it does. There’s always something new, refreshing, exhaustive and very authoritative about the weather and the region at cheap-bargain-mall.com/globalweather.html that you will need when the weather threatens to snuff life out of you as it has done to many. 
THE CAUSES OF TURBULENCE
Thermals: On sunny and hot days with calm winds, massive bubbles of air similar to very massive balloons but invisible to the eye rise and settle at certain points in the region where their temperature equals that of the surrounding air. High flying birds tend to settle on them when they spread their wings and seem motionless. The effect of these thermals on aircraft is generally slight turbulence.
Transition Zones between Land and Water Bodies (rivers, seas, or oceans): As aircrafts cross from land to water or vice versa, they also experience turbulence, generally slight turbulence. This is due mainly to the difference in the thermal properties of the two surfaces.
Mountains, Large buildings and Obstacles: Winds blowing against massive buildings and mountains create eddies (irregular air movement). Mountains create some of the most hazardous turbulence when the conditions are favourable. Winds blowing crossways mountain ranges take on a wave motion as the air flows upward over the mountains and then drops down the other side. This up and down motion can continue for more than 150km downwind and even extend far above them, often giving false values of air pressure in that vicinity. Aircrafts riding on these waves will definitely experience moderate to severe turbulence depending on its height relative to the mountain range.
Thunderstorms: The cloud system responsible for thunderstorms is cumulonimbus (CB) clouds. From aircraft window it appears like a mountain of a cloud. Thunderstorms constitute the worst enemy of aircrafts and of flying generally because of a myriad of problems they can cause. In this case, however, we are considering turbulence. The totality of activities within mature CB clouds constitutes thunderstorms. Because they form as a result of very vigorous atmospheric activity they also adopt a very dynamic nature. For instance they can suck in air from the surrounding into the system (entrainment), or vertically from below the cloud base (updrafts), as well as discharge massive bursts of wind downward (downdrafts or downbursts) all of which can create from slight turbulence when flying approach them to moderate, severe or even extreme turbulence when flying through their core and depending on how well developed they are. Near the ground they create wind shear (see below) which MUST be avoided by aircrafts on approach to landing or take-off. Microbursts (short-lived, short-spaced downward air motion) are also a common phenomenon within thunderstorms. 
Wind Shear: This means a massive change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance. This can occur both in the horizontal or vertical directions. In considering horizontal flow, certain regions known as COL regions (between two Lows and two Highs) are typical wind shear zones and might create slight to moderate turbulence.
Jet Streams: At the ground level warmer air from lower latitudes move pole-ward and at some point a boundary is formed with colder air from the Polar Regions. This triggers some dynamical forces that create very strong currents (stream) of wind sometimes reaching or even exceeding 400km/h, high up above the ground. They generally move from the west to the easterly (westerlies).Winds progress in strength from the outer part until they reach a maximum at the middle or core. These wind changes over relatively short distances can cause slight to moderate turbulence for aircrafts.
Although turbulence is an annoying part of flying, it is often an unavoidable part of it as well. Do not let the fear of turbulence ground you, just remember that as long as you are buckled into your seat belt you are safe. Truth is, turbulence isn’t as hazardous as it might seem. On your next flight, after you’ve had some ride in it, tell yourself ‘thank GOD for yet another innocuous flight’. 

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How is Crude Oil Made?

Crude oil is a natural compound that is found in rock formations within the earth’s surface. A complex combination of biological compounds, petroleum is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, along with trace metals, resulting in a one-of-a-kind chemical composition that produces oil-based crude oil for extraction.

Crude is found in a wide variety of locations and formats, including semi-solids, liquids (conventional oils), blended formats (sand oils) and heavy oils in areas of Canada and Venezuela. All crude oil must be refined before it can be converted into production calibre fuel for almost any purpose, and the various types of petroleum have different levels of difficulty with respect to refining. Heavy oils can be costly to extract and refine, resulting in a longer and more complicated process. During processing, crude oil is separated by distillation, which separates the various components according to the boiling point (viscosity) of the oil, which grants for simple recombination and processing.

Oil refineries supply an important source of oil processing, refining raw crude oil into finishing petroleum such as gasoline, heating oil, kerosene and petroleum gas products. Refineries are the head of crude oil production for end use, ensuring that the raw products can be utilized for production purposes. Raw crude oil must be processed before it can be used in production. The most pure form of crude, known as light, sweet oil requires the least refining and can even be used in its natural say for certain industrial applications. Most uses of petroleum, however, require processing for use in combustion, including transportation fuels.

The diversity of oil’s chemical composition ensures that it can be processed into a variety of end products. The varying molecular components can be combined into a wide variety of fuels which makes crude oil an effective component in a wide variety of end products.

At Oilprice.Com we specialize in providing free commodity quotes you can publish on your own sites. We have detailed information sections on Energy and commodities, with a special focus on oil and cover such topics as crude oil refining and how is crude oil made. We also cover other commodities and have in depth articles on Finance and Geopolitics.

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Minerals paragenetic sequence of Big Gossan skarn ore deposit

 

The Big Gossan skarn ore deposit, located around 1 km south-west of the Ertsberg
skarn ore deposit, and 2 km south of the Grasberg porphyry Cu-Au deposit. The ore
deposits is skarn ore deposit type with very high copper grade. By the end of 2007, ore
reserve of Big Gossan is 52.7 million ton with grade mean of Cu 2.31%, Au 1.1 gr /ton
and Ag 14.75 gr/ ton. The Big Gossan ore deposit form tabular pattern dimension
having length more than 1 km, height more than 500 m and wide variety up to 200m.
The Big Gossan skarn zones successively from boundary of Hornfels of Kembelangan
shale (Kkeh) showing proximal skarn (garnet>clino-pyroxene), intermediate skarn
(garnet=clino-pyroxene), distal skarn (clino-pyroxene >garnet), and marble.
Petrography observation in the drift and also the drilling core, indicaties that proximal
skarn is started at the boundary between carbonate rock of Waripi Formation and
Limestone Member of Ekmai Formation with hornfels of Shale Member of Ekmai
Formation which have gradation to intermediate, distal skarn till marble. Garnet present
abundance and gradually disappear toward marble. On the contrary clino-pyroxene
present insignificant amount around hornfels and gradually more abundance toward
boundaries of marble.
In general, minerals paragenetic sequence of Big Gossan skarn ore deposit is started
from of metamorphism processes, yielding biotite-k.feldspar hornfels and biotitepyroxene
hornfels. Next process is the interaction of hydrothermal fluid with wall rock
and intrusion rock peripheral yield anhydrous prograde skarn which is marked by the
present of garnet minerals (andradite-grossularite) and clinopyroxene (diopsidehedenbergite)
is accompanied by epidote-calcite-quartz-anhydrite. The abundance
tremolite-actinolite which of accompanied by many other minerals such as talcanhydrite-
calcite-epidote-garnet-magnetite-pyrite, marking the existence of the hydrous
retrograde skarn phase, after hydrothermal breccia. Most sulfide minerals such as
magnetite pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, galena are, associated with Cu-
Au, formed after hydrous retrograde

By:

Sutarto*), Sunyoto,W**).,Widodo, S.**), Soebari,L.,**),Sutanto*),Setyadi,H. **) dan Wiguna,P.**)
*)Teknik Geologi Universitas Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran” Yogyakarta. Jl. SWK 104
Condongcatur, Yogyakarta. Email: sutarto_geoupn@yahoo.co.id
**)PT.Freeport Indonesia,. Plaza 89,5th Floor,Jl.Rasuna Said Kav.X7 No.6 Jakarta

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Where are deltas found?

Deltas can occur in lakes and inland seas as well as in the ocean, but they are most important in the open ocean (Boggs). Deltas are particularly common in the modern ocean owing to post-Pleistocene sea-level rise coupled with high sediment loads carried by many rivers. They often contain extensive wetlands, whose high biological productivity makes them vital nursery grounds for fisheries. Huge amounts of coal, oil, and natural gas are found in subsurface ancient deltaic deposits. Deltas seldom form on active, subductingcontinental margins because there is no stable shallow shelf on which sediments can accumulate. Twenty-five (25) of the world’s largest deltas are found on passive margins of continents. They are categorized according to features within the delta plain and by energies acting on the delta (tide, wave, and fluvial). The size of a delta is dependent on the size of the drainage basin, the elevation of the land, and climate.

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